|
The history of Egypt is one of the richest, oldest and most varied of any country in the world and the country’s place in
the Middle East is as central now as it was in the fourth millennium BC. The unification of the Lower and the Upper Kingdoms,
in about 3180 BC, marks a convenient starting point for Egyptian history. This dynamic, culturally sophisticated and powerful
kingdom on the banks of the Nile grew into one of the greatest civilisations of the ancient world. The pre-Hellenic period
is reckoned in Kingdoms (Old, Middle and New) and subdivided into dynasties. The IVth dynasty saw the construction of such
architectural masterpieces as the Great Pyramid, while the XIth and XIIth saw the zenith of Egyptian power at the start of
the second millennium. Tutankhamun, whose famous tomb was discovered in 1922, ruled briefly during the XVIIIth dynasty. From
the XXth dynasty onwards, the power of Egypt was on the wane and the country was overrun on several occasions by foreign powers.
The latest and most permanent of these invasions, which brought the Pharaonic period to an end, was that of Alexander the
Great, in 332 BC. During the Hellenic and Augustan Roman period (circa AD 30), the emergence of law and literature in Alexandria
allowed for seven centuries of comparative peace and economic stability. From the middle of the fourth century, Egypt became
part of the Eastern Empire. Then, in AD 642, an invading Arab army – one manifestation of the rapid Islamic conquests that
followed the death of Muhammad – was welcomed by the Coptic Christians in preference to their previous Greek rulers. The Fatamids
gained control of the country in the late 10th century, however, their power declined after a century or so. The subsequent
revival of Muslim fortunes and the reawakening of the spirit of Jihad (holy war) was largely associated with the career of Saladin, whose control of Egypt enabled him to reunite much of the Muslim
world.
Under Ottoman rule, Egypt became a somewhat neglected corner of a large and increasingly moribund empire. The arrival of Napoleon
in AD 1798 brought Egypt once more into violent contact with a European power. By 1805, however, the struggle for independence
had been won, with Muhammad Ali being recognised as Sultan. This was a period of great rivalry between the European powers,
during which Egypt was buffeted between them. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, although subsequent financial problems and
internal struggles led to British occupation in 1882, which lasted until 1936. Thereafter, Egypt was formally independent
but severely constrained by the British, who retained ultimate political and economic control over the country. Discontentment
against the Government culminated in the 1952 revolution, orchestrated by young army officers led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser.
After consolidating his position as President of the new Government, Nasser took the Suez Canal into public ownership with
all revenues directed to the Egyptian treasury. This led to the Suez Crisis of 1956, in which a combined Anglo-French-Israeli
military operation attempted to seize and depose Nasser.
The failure of that operation greatly enhanced Nasser’s standing and inspired supporters throughout the Middle East who shared
his vision of a united Arab world, free from foreign interference. Disputes between Arab countries scuppered these plans.
The defeat of Arab forces by Israel in the 1967 Six Day War deprived Egypt of the Sinai peninsula and the Gaza Strip, land
that was recovered only after another defeat by the Israelis in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 and the subsequent Egyptian-Israeli
peace initiative, which culminated in the 1979 Camp David accord. The treaty was signed on the Egyptian side by Nasser’s successor,
Anwar El-Sadat, and this, along with the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Egypt after the Iranian revolution, accounted for
his assassination in 1981. Sadat was succeeded by his deputy, Hosni Mubarak, who pursued similar policies to his former boss.
However, the rapprochement with the Arab world (especially Saudi Arabia) at the Amman Summit in 1987 instigated a new phase
of diplomatic relations within the Middle East and marked the rehabilitation of the Mubarak government into the wider Arab
community.
Egypt was closely involved in the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations during the early 1990s and broadly supportive of the 1994
Oslo agreement between the two sides. Since then, it has played a largely back-seat role in the Arab-Israel dispute. Not least,
this is because it is disinclined to do anything to disturb relations with the USA – after Israel, Egypt is the world’s largest
single recipient of US aid. Of more immediate concern has been the domestic rise of militant Islam. Mubarak is aware that
Egypt’s deep-rooted social and economic problems render fundamentalism an attractive option for many young Egyptians. The
government’s strategy has been to defuse the movement by holding controlled multi-party elections, at which selected Islamic
candidates are allowed to stand (although the pro-government National Democratic Party won the October 2000 elections to the
Majlis) coupled with fierce repression of Islamic paramilitaries. There has been no repeat to date of the notorious 1997 Luxor incident
when 70 people, mostly foreign tourists, lost their lives. Many of the leading militants have since left the country: a number
of these, including senior figures in Jema’a Islamiya, the most prominent of the militant groups, subsequently linked up with
Osama bin Laden’s al-Qaeda organisation.
President Mubarak, in power for 24 years, won with 88.6 per cent of the votes - in the first presidential election held in
September 2005. The election was marked by a low turnout of just 23 per cent. Mr Mubarak, who previously had been elected
only in single-candidate referendums, changed the system under pressure from the US and domestic political groups.
Parliamentary elections take place on 9 November 2005, with a second stage being held on 20 November and a third stage on
1 December.
|
Overview 
